The Relationship between Hot Executive Functions and Self-esteem with the Moderating Role of Teacher's Emotional Support in Students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

• Alireza Asgharzadeh ¹
• Seyyed Mohsen Asgharinekah ²
• Sakineh Soltani Kuhbanani ³

¹ Master of Psycology and Education of Exceptional Children, , Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran.

² Associate Professor, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran.

³ Associate Professor, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran

10.22067/tpccp.2025.83465.1525

Abstract

Introduction
A primary concern for the education system is the academic achievement and prevention of academic failure of students diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The consequences of academic failure in this group are significant, manifesting in detrimental effects on both their individual and the social life. This phenomenon is regarded as a threat to the nation's social capital. ADHD has been shown to manifest in academic, social, and interpersonal domains, with these effects often persisting into adulthood. Deficits in executive functions, particularly in the domains of cognition and metacognition, have been demonstrated to result in a decline in self-esteem among this student population. Low self-esteem has been demonstrated to have a deleterious effect on motivation and self-confidence, which in turn negatively impacts academic and social performance. The provision of emotional support from educators can function as a protective factor, thereby facilitating the amelioration of this situation. The present study examines the moderating role of teacher emotional support in the relationship between hot executive functions and self-esteem of students with ADHD.
Method
The present study was conducted in a descriptive-correlational manner using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). The statistical population under consideration comprises all elementary school students in Kashan during the 1401-1402 academic year. The sampling method employed was purposive, and the sample size was determined to be 250 people. The inclusion criteria encompassed students who had referred themselves to psychology centers and had received a diagnosis of ADHD, yet were otherwise healthy in both physical and mental respects. The research tools included four standardized questionnaires: the SNAP Rating Scale (SNAP-IV) by Swanson et al. (1980) with 18 items, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) (1965) with 10 questions, the Barkley Scale of Executive Function Deficits in Children and Adolescents (2012) with 70 questions, and the Sakiz Teacher Emotional Support Scale (2007) with 9 questions. All phases of the research were conducted under the supervision of the supervisor, and all information was confidentially collected.
Findings
The analysis of the relationships between the study variables indicate that teacher emotional support exerts a positive and significant effect on students' self-esteem (standard coefficient = 0.443, T = 5.367, P < 0.001). The present study has demonstrated a positive correlation between self-motivation and self-esteem (standard coefficient = 0.375, T = 3.351, P < 0.001). An examination of the interaction between self-motivation and teacher emotional support reveals a significant effect of this interaction on self-esteem (standard coefficient = -0.460, T = 4.653, P < 0.000). Furthermore, emotional self-regulation demonstrated no substantial impact on self-esteem (P = 0.396). Conversely, the interaction with teacher emotional support exhibited a non-significant association (P = 0.806). Furthermore, the positive and significant effect of hot executive function on self-esteem is evident (standard coefficient = 0.208, T = 4.763, P < 0.001). The interaction of hot executive function with teacher emotional support demonstrates a significant effect (standard coefficient = -0.860, T = 5.628, P < 0.000). In general, the provision of emotional support by teachers, in conjunction with self-motivation among students, has been demonstrated to exert a positive and significant influence on the students' self-esteem.
Discussion & Conclusion
The initial hypothesis was analyzed, revealing that emotional self-regulation, with the moderating influence of teacher emotional support, does not serve as a substantial predictor of self-esteem in students exhibiting ADHD symptoms. This result aligns with the findings of Boaz (2023) and Rushton et al. (2020), who emphasize the emotional distance between these students and teachers. The theoretical explanation of this finding, based on Gross's emotion regulation theory, refers to the weakness in processing emotional experiences and predicting behavioral consequences in these children, which reduces the effectiveness of self-regulation and receiving effective emotional support. Therefore, it is recommended that emotional support be provided in the form of broader educational-social interactions.
 The examination of second hypothesis demonstrated a positive and significant relationship between self-motivation and self-esteem, with teacher emotional support serving as a moderating factor. This finding aligns with the research of Folds (2022), Markkanen (2022), and Zahed Babelan (2012), who emphasize that emotional support facilitates the development of self-esteem by increasing the sense of belonging and strengthening the perception of competence. In the theoretical explanation, the role of the teacher as a facilitator of intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy beliefs is highlighted. Consequently, the present study posits the notion of an enhanced pedagogical approach, emphasizing the empowerment of educators in the realm of motivational and emotional interactions.
 The examination of third hypothesis revealed no significant relationship between hot executive functions and teacher emotional support. This finding aligns with the results of Fredericks (2022) and Razmi et al. (2018), who posited that deficiencies in emotion management and the presence of maladaptive behaviors impede the acquisition of emotional support.According to the attachment theory, children diagnosed with ADHD exhibit diminished capacity to receive and benefit from emotional support provided by teachers. This diminished capacity is attributed to their impaired social emotion regulation skills and challenges in establishing secure bonds with adults. It is recommended that educational environments be designed to be supportive and responsive to students' emotional needs.
The examination of fourth hypothesis demonstrated the ineffectiveness of emotional self-regulation in these children, a finding that aligns with the studies of Ferguson et al. (2021) and Barrett et al. (2020). This phenomenon is associated with mood instability and impaired impulse control. According to the principles of executive function theory, impaired inhibition and self-monitoring skills in children diagnosed with ADHD can impede their capacity to effectively manage negative emotions and respond adequately to stressful situations. Consequently, the implementation of psychoeducational interventions in conjunction with teacher emotional support is imperative.
The examination of fifth hypothesis posits that teacher emotional support is associated with a significant increase in intrinsic motivation and self-esteem. This finding aligns with the research conducted by Markkanen (2022), Floyd et al. (2023), and Folds (2022). The present study draws upon the self-determination theory of Deci and Ryan (1985) to posit that a sense of belonging and security is a fundamental element in the underpinnings of motivation and self-esteem. Consequently, it is imperative to enhance teachers' emotional and communication skills to provide effective support to students with ADHD.

Keywords

• warm executive functions
• self-esteem
• emotional support
• attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder

Main Subjects

• Clinical psychology

---

References

1. References

   10. Fredricks, J. (2022). Measuring Student engagement with observational techniques. In Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 617-627). Springer. . https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20303.

   Abazar, S. S. K. S. Z. K. (2018). An investigation into the psychometric properties of the Barclay Children and Adolescents Executive Function Deficits Questionnaire. Quarterly of Psychology of Exceptional IndividualsAllameh Tabataba’i University, 8(30), 19-45. ( in Persian). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.22054/jpe.2018.9209

   Asgari Nekah, S. M. A., Z. (2014). The Effectiveness of Executive Functions based Play Therapy on improving Response Inhibition, planning and working memory in children with AttentionDeficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of CognitivePsychology,Vol. 2, No. 1, Spring 2014, 2(1), 41-51. ( in Persian).  https://doi.org/https://doi.org ‎20.1001.1.23455780.1393.2.1.5.8.

   Attari, Z., Jafar Tabatabaee, T. S., Jafar Tabatabaee, S. S., & Nasseri, S. (2021). The effectiveness of hot and cold executive function training on internalized and externalized behaviors in hyperactive children. Journal of Applied Family Therapy, 2(3), 460-477. ( in Persian). https://doi.org/10.61838/kman.aftj.2.3.23.  

   Azadfar, N., Fathi Azar, E., & Hashemi, T. (2020). effectiveness of the training package of cool executive functions on normal students' academic performance of Elementary Sixth Grade. Rooyesh-e-Ravanshenasi Journal (RRJ), 9(10), 27-36. ( in Persian). https://doi.org/ 20.1001.1.2383353.1399.9.10.15.6.  

   Barkley, R. A. (2003). Issues in the diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. Brain and development, 25(2), 77-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0387-7604(02)00152-3.

   Barkley, R. A. (2012). Barkley deficits in executive functioning scale--children and adolescents (BDEFS-CA). Guilford Press. https://doi.org/ 9781462503940.

   Castagna, P. J., Calamia, M., Roye, S., Greening, S. G., & Davis, T. E. (2019). The effects of childhood inattention and anxiety on executive functioning: Inhibition, updating, and shifting. ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 11, 423-432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-019-00306-7.

   Chen, K.-C., & Jang, S.-J. (2010). Motivation in online learning: Testing a model of self-determination theory. Computers in human behavior, 26(4), 741-752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.01.011.

    Clayton, R. J., Hein, S., Keller-Margulis, M. A., & Gonzalez, J. E. (2022). Associations between social skills, inattention, and English vocabulary skills of preschool Latinx dual language learners. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 36(2), 219-238. https://doi.org/10.1080/02568543.2021.1934200.

   Dash, M. F. (2021). Case Study Addressing Disruptive Behaviors of Students with Self-Regulation Difficulties in the Classroom Northcentral University]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-010-9398-x.

   DSM–IV–TR. (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edn, text revision) (DSM–IV–TR) Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1192/. bjp.179.185-a

   DuPaul, G. J. (2007). School-based interventions for students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Current status and future directions. School Psychology Review, 36(2), 183-194. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2007.12087939.

   Filipe, M. (2021). How do executive functions issues affect writing in students with neurodevelopmental disorders. Executive Functions and Writing; Limpo, T., Olive, T., Eds, 160-180. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198863564.001.0001.  

   Greenberger, E., Chen, C., Dmitrieva, J., & Farruggia, S. P. (2003). Item-wording and the dimensionality of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: Do they matter? Personality and Individual Differences, 35(6), 1241-1254. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00331-8.

   Hosseini Farideh Al-Sadat, K. M. (2011). Investigating the role of the teacher in students' mathematical learning and emotional regulation. Modern Psychological Research (Psychology, University of Tabriz). 20(5), 40-62. ( in Persian).https://sid.ir/paper/120332/fa

   Huis, E. M., Vingerhoets, A. J., & Denollet, J. (2011). Attachment style and self-esteem: The mediating role of Type D personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(7), 1099-1103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.034 01.034.  

   Jafari, A. (2018). The prediction of internal-external motivation for learning based on attribution styles and self-efficacy in medical sciences students. Education Strategies in Medical Sciences, 11(1), 9-14. ( in Persian). https://doi.org/ 10.29252/edcbmj.11.01.02.

   Jenkins, L. N., & Ogg, J. (2021). Inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity, and academic performance in reading and mathematics: Exploring academic enablers as a mediator. Contemporary School Psychology, 25(2), 219-229. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-019-00249-w.  

   Kamper-DeMarco, K. E., Shankman, J., Fearey, E., Lawrence, H. R., & Schwartz-Mette, R. A. (2020). Linking social skills and adjustment. In Social skills across the life span (pp. 47-66). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817752-5.00003-2.  

   Lee, G., & Wallace, A. (2018). Flipped learning in the English as a foreign language classroom: Outcomes and perceptions. TESOL quarterly, 52(1), 62-84. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.372.  

   Leila, S.-S., Zahra, H., Jalal-eddin, S.-S. S., Mohammad-Reza, M., Akbar, R., & Abol-Fath, S. S. (2010). Determining the psychometric properties of the SNAP-IV rating scale implemented by teachers. ( in Persian). https://sid.ir/paper/51173/fa.

   Li, A. K. (1985). Changing Preservice Teachers' Attitudes toward Emotionally Disturbed Children. Canadian Journal of Special Education, 1(1), 73-82. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2011.565386.

   Metsäpelto, R., Poikkeus, A., Heikkilä, M., Heikkinen-Jokilahti, K., Husu, J., Laine, A., Lappalainen, K., Lähteenmäki, M., Mikkilä-Erdmann, M., & Warinowski, A. (2020). Conceptual framework of teaching quality: A multidimensional adapted process model of teaching. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/52tcv .

   Miller, P. (2012). Ten Characteristics of a Good Teacher. English Teaching Forum, https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203818268.   

   Moffett, L., & Morrison, F. J. (2020). Off-task behavior in kindergarten: Relations to executive function and academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(5), 938. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000397.

   Mohamadi, A., Mirdarikvand, F., & Sepahvandi, M. A. (2021). Presenting a Causal Model of School Emotion and Academic Motivation with Career Guidance: the Mediator Role of Academic Self-Concept. Rooyesh-e-Ravanshenasi Journal (RRJ), 10(2), 91-102. (in Persian). https://doi.org/20.1001.1.2383353.1400.10.2.4.6.  

   Mohammadi, N. (2005). A preliminary study of the validity and reliability of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Developmental Psychology: Iranian Psychologists, 1(4), 55-62. ( in Persian). https://doi.org/10.4306/pi.2012.9.1.54

   Munro, B. A., Weyandt, L. L., Marraccini, M. E., & Oster, D. R. (2017). The relationship between nonmedical use of prescription stimulants, executive functioning and academic outcomes. Addictive behaviors, 65, 250-257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.08.023.  

   Nikdel, H. N. N. F. (2018). Academic boredom in social studies based on class structure, teaching quality, and teacher emotional support. Quarterly of Educatinal Psychology Allameh Tabataba’i University  14(49), 29-51. ( in Persian). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.22054/jep.2018.29765.2145

   Obielodan, O. O., Ochayi, O. A., & Akomolafe, P. (2021). Discernment of special school students on the application of low-technological devices for learning. Journal of Exceptional People, 10(19), 81. https://doi.org/10.46606/eajess2021v02i02.0071.   

   Pfiffner, L., & Barkley, R. (1990). Educational placement and classroom management. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment, 498-539. https://doi.org/10.17105/SPR-2017-0151.V48-3.

   Pliszka, S. R., Carlson, C. L., & Swanson, J. M. (1999). ADHD with comorbid disorders: Clinical assessment and management (Vol. 72). Guilford press New York. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1056-4993(18)30101-9.

   Poon, K. (2018). Hot and cool executive functions in adolescence: Development and contributions to important developmental outcomes. Frontiers in psychology, 8, 2311. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02311.   

   Rahmanpour, N., Asadzadeh, H., Sadipour, E., & Farrokhi, N. (2019). Developing and validating a self-determination educational package and determine its effectiveness on internal/external motivation and amotivation on high school students. Journal of Educational Scinces, 25(2), 71-90. (in Persian). https://doi.org/10.22055/edu.2018.26944.2614.

   Sabzeh, B., & Deylamypour, S. (2020). The Effect of Teacher's Attention and Feedback on the Level of Learning of Maths in Students with Mental Disorders. The Journal of Theory and Practice in Teachers Education, 6(9), 49-68. ( in Persian). https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430933.

   Sakiz, G. (2007). Does teacher affective support matter? An investigation of the relationship among perceived teacher affective support, sense of belonging, academic emotions, academic self-efficacy beliefs, and academic effort in middle school mathematics classrooms The Ohio State University]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2011.10.005.  

   Shahan, M. F., Ali, A., & Rasool, M. (2023). Assessing Emotional Intelligence and Academic Performance among Male Field Hockey Varsity Student Athletes and Non-Athletes. Journal of Development and Social Sciences, 4(3), 371-381. ( in Persian). https://doi.org/10.47205/jdss.2023(4-III)37.  

   Sönmez, S., & Betül Kolaşınlı, I. (2021). The effect of preschool teachers’ stress states on classroom climate. Education 3-13, 49(2), 190-202. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2019.1709528.

   Tehraani, M., Sedghpoor, S., & Ebraahim Damaavandi, M. (2021). The Relation between Perceived Goal Structure and Academic Resilience Mediated by Academic Motivation. Quarterly Journal of Education, 36(4), 71-90. (in Persian) https://doi.org/20.1001.1.10174133.1399.36.4.4.4.  

   Timler, G. R. (2022). Children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and social communication disorder. In Social Communication Development and Disorders (pp. 239-266). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003197096.  

   Venkatesan, S., & Lokesh, L. (2019). Impulsivity in students with specific learning disabilities. International Journal of Indian Psychology, 7(4), 37-47. https://doi.org/10.25215/0704.005.

   Viuda-Suárez, M., Alonso-Lorenzo, J. C., Ruiz-Jiménez, F. J., & Luciano-Soriano, C. (2023). Evolution of children diagnosed with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Follow-up study in a Spanish sample. Gaceta médica de México, 159(3), 199-206. https://doi.org/10.24875/gmm.23000046.

   Westland, J. C. (2010). Lower bounds on sample size in structural equation modeling. Electronic commerce research and applications, 9(6), 476-487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elerap.2010.07.003.  

   Zahed Babelan, A. (2012). The degree of correspondence between teachers' verbal and non-verbal communication during teaching and its association with students' academic achievement. Journal of school psychology, 1(1), 46-61. (in Persian). https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.2000.1068.

   Zhou, V., Strom, J., Drafton, K., & Wilson, B. (2020). A pilot study on executive functioning in mainland Chinese autistic preschoolers. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2022.918163 .