The Effectiveness of Mood Induction on Executive Functions and Theory of Mind in Female University Students

Articles in Press

Document Type : پژوهشی

Authors

• Alaleh Attaran Khorasani ¹
• Imanollah Bigdeli ²
• Ali Mashhadi ²

¹ Master of Clinical Psychology, Faculty of Education and Psychology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran.

² Professor, Department of Clinical Psychology, Faculty of Education and Psychology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran.

10.22067/tpccp.2025.76828.1292

Abstract

Introduction
Executive functions are a set of high-level cognitive functions, including planning, problem-solving, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and working memory. These functions enable individuals to perform goal-directed behaviors (Diamond, 2013; Bull & Lee, 2014). These functions are divided into two categories: cold and warm executive functions. Cold functions include cognitive processes such as working memory and inhibition that operate independently of emotions, while warm functions, such as theory of mind, are strongly linked to emotions and feelings (Peterson & Welsh, 2014; Anderson et al., 2008). Theory of mind, a constituent of warm executive function, pertains to an individual's capacity to ascribe mental states such as beliefs, desires, and intentions to oneself and others, leveraging this information to predict social behaviors (Ferguson & Austin, 2010). Conversely, mood, defined as a stable emotional state, has the capacity to influence cognitive functions, either positively or negatively. Positive mood has been linked to enhanced attention, memory, decision-making, and cognitive processing, leading to improved executive functions (Ashby et al., 1999; Davidson, 2003). Conversely, negative mood has been associated with diminished cognitive processing, attention, and mental flexibility (Clark & Purdon, 2004). Despite the large number of studies on the effectiveness of mood on cognition, no comprehensive study has examined the simultaneous effect of positive affective states (e.g., happiness and calm) and negative affective states (e.g., fear and anger) on cold and warm executive functions in an experimental framework. This theoretical and applied gap underscores the necessity for a study to elucidate the causal relationships between these variables. In addition, given the extant research evidence on gender differences in executive functions (Baron-Cohen et al., 2005; Herlitz & Rehnman, 2008; Miller & Halpern, 2014), the statistical population was selected from female students to increase homogeneity and strengthen the accuracy of the results.
Method
The present study was of a quasi-experimental nature, employing a pretest-posttest design with a control group. The statistical population comprised female students enrolled at Ferdowsi University of Mashhad in the second semester of the academic year 2020-2021. A convenience sampling method was employed to select 75 eligible individuals from among the volunteers, who were then randomly assigned to five groups of 15 (happiness, calmness, fear, anger, and a control group with neutral mood). The inclusion criteria encompassed individuals between the ages of 18 and 30 years, with the additional stipulation that they be in their final year of study. Furthermore, to ensure the integrity of the study's sample, participants were required to undergo a semi-structured interview to assess their mental and physical health. The instruments employed in the study included the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Scales (Watson et al., 1988), the N-Back test for measuring working memory (Kerchner, 1958), the Go/No-Go test for assessing cognitive inhibition (Hoffman, 1984), and Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test for measuring theory of mind (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001). Mood induction was performed by showing targeted emotional films. Subsequent to the data collection, an analysis was conducted using multivariate analysis of covariance and Bonferroni post hoc test.
Findings
The results of a multivariate analysis of covariance demonstrated that positive mood induction significantly increased positive emotions (F=38.84, p<0.001, η²=0.696) and decreased negative emotions (F=71.19, p<0.001, η²=0.807). In the N-Back test, the happiness and calmness groups exhibited a substantial increase in the number of correct responses following the intervention (M=100.67 and M=114.36, respectively, F=16.98, p<0.001, η²=0.500), suggesting an enhancement in working memory. However, the reduction in reaction time in this test (F=0.91, p=0.343) was not significant. In the Go/No-Go test, cognitive inhibition performance in the happiness and relaxation groups exhibited a significant enhancement in correct responses (F=13.34, p<0.001, η²=0.443) and a reduction in incorrect responses (F=25.67, p<0.001, η²=0.605). Furthermore, a decline in reaction time was observed in the happiness and relaxation groups (F=4.11, p=0.047, η²=0.058). A significant discrepancy was identified between the groups in the theory of mind variable (F=4.32, p=0.004, η²=0.149), with the happiness group demonstrating the most substantial improvement in score (M=22.47, SD=4.36). Overall, multivariate analysis indicated that the effect of group on the dependent variables was significant (Wilks' Lambda=0.48, F=7.42, p<0.001, η²=0.307). The results of the Bonferroni test further demonstrated that the happiness and calm groups exhibited superior performance in all cognitive indicators when compared to the fear, anger, and control groups.
Discussion & Conclusion
The findings of this study are consistent with those of previous studies, including those by Soltani & Foroozandeh (2018), Shields et al. (2016), and Zare & Ghorbani (2016). These findings confirm the effective role of positive mood in increasing positive emotions and reducing negative emotions. In accordance with cognitive-emotional theories, such as Beck's theory and congruent processing theory, positive mood, by orienting cognition toward positive thoughts and memories, mitigates negativity bias and enhances emotional and cognitive well-being (Clark et al., 1999; Beck & Emery, 1985). The findings of the study also demonstrated that positive mood significantly improves working memory, cognitive inhibition, and theory of mind. These results align with the findings reported in the studies by Cardi et al. (2019) and Albinet et al. (2012). From a neuropsychological perspective, the activation of the dopaminergic system during positive mood experiences can be attributed to better executive function, which increases motivation, flexibility, and cognitive efficiency (Davidson, 2003; Gray, 1987). Conversely, negative moods, by activating serotonergic and noradrenergic circuits, have been shown to reduce cognitive function, attention, and motivation (Gray, 1987). A notable distinction emerges when contrasting the impact of happiness and calmness: happiness exerts a pronounced effect on enhancing theory of mind, while calmness elicits a marked decline in response time. This discrepancy can be attributed to the differential impact of incentive and inhibitory motivational systems within emotion theories. From a pragmatic standpoint, the recommendation is to utilize positive mood induction interventions in educational settings (e.g., meditation, art, music therapy), professional environments (e.g., positive space design, group activities), and therapeutic contexts (e.g., emotion regulation workshops). The study's limitations include its focus on a specific population (female students) and the use of controlled laboratory conditions. It is recommended that subsequent analyses include a more diverse cohort and encompass natural condition, as well as long-term effects.

Keywords

• Keywords: mood induction
• executive function
• female students

Main Subjects

• Clinical psychology

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