A Comparative Study of the Psychological Dimension of Death from the Perspective of Existential Psychotherapy and Islamic Beliefs, with an Emphasis on Nahj al Balaghah

Articles in Press

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

jamaleddin kazemi golvardi ¹

Seyedeh Maryam Moshirian Farahi ²

¹ M.A. in General Psychology, Imam Reza International University, Mashhad, Iran

² Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Imam Reza International University, Mashhad, Iran

10.22067/tpccp.2026.91563.1737

Abstract

Extended Abstract

Introduction
Death has long been regarded as humanity's most prominent and anxiety-provoking concern (Yalom, 2022). As an unavoidable aspect of human existence, it has occupied human thought throughout history and has prompted various psychological traditions to develop therapeutic approaches aimed at helping individuals confront and alleviate this existential anxiety (Van Deurzen & Adams, 2016). Within theistic religions, death is understood not as an endpoint but as a transition from worldly existence to an eternal hereafter, and detailed guidance is provided regarding how individuals may cope with the worries and concerns associated with it. What sets humanity apart from other living beings is the consciousness of its own mortality (Iacovou & Weixel-Dixon, 2017)—a consciousness that plays a central role in shaping an authentic, purposeful, and meaningful life (Van Deurzen, 2017). Despite the extensive literature available in both domains, no systematic and independent comparative investigation has yet examined existential psychotherapy as a representative human-centred approach alongside the teachings of Nahj al‑Balaghah (Ali ibn Abi Talib, n.d.) as a representative source of Islamic perspectives on death and its psychological implications. Accordingly, the present study aims to conduct a comparative analysis of the psychological aspects of the concept of 'death' through the dual lenses of existential psychotherapy (representing psychological schools) and the teachings of Nahj al‑Balaghah (representing Islamic beliefs).
Method
This study employed a library‑based research design using a descriptive‑analytical approach. Given the theoretical and foundational nature of the topic, primary and authoritative sources in existential psychotherapy, together with the original text of Nahj al‑Balaghah and its authoritative commentaries, were compiled. The collected materials were subsequently analysed through a critical‑comparative framework in order to identify and clarify points of convergence and divergence between the two perspectives.
Findings
The comprehensive comparative analysis of existential psychotherapy and the teachings of Nahj al‑Balaghah revealed ten major themes. First, while both perspectives unequivocally acknowledge the certainty and inevitability of death, they differ substantially in how they explain its nature and essence. Within existential psychotherapy, interpretations of death vary according to the philosophical assumptions of individual thinkers. Non‑theistic existentialists (such as Heidegger, Sartre, and Yalom) generally regard death as the cessation of consciousness and the termination of individual existence, whereas theistic existentialists (such as Kierkegaard and Marcel) view it as a transition to a transcendent mode of being and connectedness to the sacred. In contrast, Nahj al‑Balaghah unequivocally presents death as the termination of earthly existence and the beginning of everlasting life in the hereafter. Second, existential psychotherapy does not offer a single, universally accepted conceptual definition of death and instead emphasises individuals' confrontation with finitude, whereas Nahj al‑Balaghah conceptualises death through notions such as mawt, tawaffī, and ajal within the framework of divine decree and providence. Third, while existential psychotherapy regards death anxiety as an unavoidable dimension of human existence, Nahj al‑Balaghah relates its intensity to individuals' conduct, worldly attachments, and the quality of their relationship with God.
Fourth, existential psychotherapy primarily focuses on the psychological and cognitive consequences of death awareness, whereas Nahj al‑Balaghah emphasises the spiritual, metaphysical, and transcendent dimensions of human existence, maintaining that genuine tranquillity is attained only through spiritual serenity. Fifth, the sources of meaning in existential psychotherapy range from material to spiritual concerns depending on individual worldviews, while in Nahj al‑Balaghah meaning is grounded in devotion to God and the pursuit of divine felicity. Sixth, the existential psychotherapy concept of "throwness"—signifying the involuntary character of birth and the tribulations of existence—fundamentally diverges from the wisdom‑grounded approach of Nahj al‑Balaghah, which construes such adversities and constraints within the paradigm of eschatological recompense, divine probation, and the cultivation of spiritual development.
Seventh, both perspectives emphasise the uncertainty of the timing of death and the importance of making meaningful use of life's opportunities, although Nahj al‑Balaghah ultimately directs such opportunities toward spiritual advancement and divine satisfaction. Eighth, both approaches converge on the necessity of avoiding undue worldly attachments, freeing oneself from unhealthy dependencies, and centring upon the authentic core of human being. Ninth, the concept of martyrdom—as a distinctive and preeminent mode of death—holds no independent status within existential psychotherapy and is rarely addressed in the works of its seminal thinkers. In Nahj al‑Balaghah, however, martyrdom is portrayed as the most exalted, meritorious, and serene mode of dying—one that believers anticipate with profound eagerness. Tenth and finally, both perspectives suggest that awareness of death can strengthen social cohesion, reinforce accountability toward others, and reduce unhealthy worldly rivalries.

Discussion and Conclusion
The findings indicate that existential psychotherapy and the teachings of Nahj al‑Balaghah converge in emphasising the role of death awareness in fostering meaning in life, as well as themes such as freedom, choice, responsibility, and liberation from excessive worldly attachment. Nevertheless, a fundamental distinction emerges between the human‑centred orientation of existential psychotherapy and the God‑centred worldview articulated in Nahj al‑Balaghah. This divergence shapes their respective understandings of human nature, suffering, meaning, mortality, and ultimate fulfilment. Whereas existential psychotherapy primarily focuses on the individual's subjective encounter with mortality and the construction of meaning within the constraints of finite existence, Nahj al‑Balaghah situates these concerns within a broader theological and metaphysical framework encompassing spiritual, transcendent, and otherworldly dimensions of human life. This fundamental divergence allows Nahj al‑Balaghah to address a far more expansive range of authentic human needs, especially those pertaining to the transcendent, spiritual, and eschatological dimensions of existence. Notably, within the existentialist tradition itself, the perspectives of Kierkegaard and, to a certain degree, Jaspers, exhibit closer affinities to Nahj al‑Balaghah, thereby paving the way for a fruitful dialogue between existential psychotherapy and Islamic thought. On the whole, the two worldviews are neither diametrically opposed nor entirely synonymous; rather, through its precise attention to the metaphysical and supra‑material spheres of human existence, Nahj al‑Balaghah presents a more comprehensive, nuanced, and profoundly enriched vision than that offered by existential psychotherapy. It is thus recommended that the complementary potentials of both approaches be harnessed in the development of spiritual‑existential psychotherapeutic interventions.

Keywords

Death

existential psychotherapy

Islamic beliefs

Nahj al-Balaghah

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